Methods And Mechanism Used To Protect Business Interests Commerce Essay

Methods And Mechanism Used To Protect Business Interests Commerce Essay According to investopedia, government actions and policies that restrict or restrain international trade, often done with the intent of protecting local businesses and jobs from foreign competition. Typical methods of protectionism are import tariffs, quotas, subsidies or tax cuts to local businesses and direct state intervention. Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between states through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, and a variety of other government regulations designed to discourage imports and prevent foreign take-over of domestic markets and companies (source: Wikipedia). Protectionism, policy of protecting domestic industries against foreign competition by means of tariffs, subsidies, import quotas, or other restrictions or handicaps placed on imports of foreign competitors. (source: Britannica Encyclopedia) PROTECTION OF LOCAL INDUSTRIES Why do nations impede free trade when the inhibition is irrational? One reason why governments interfere with free marketing is to protect local industries, often at the expense of local consumers as well as consumers worldwide. Regulations are created to keep out or hamper the entry of foreign-made products. Arguments for the protection of local industries usually take one of the following forms: Keeping money at home Reducing unemployment Equalizing cost and price Enhancing national security Protecting infant industry Keeping Money at Home Trade unions and protectionists often argue that international trade will lead to an outflow of money, making foreigners richer and local people poorer. This argument is based on fallacy of regarding money as the sole indicators of wealth. Other assets, even products, can also be indicators of wealth. Also, this protectionist argument assumes that foreigners receive money without having to give something of value in return. Whether local consumers buy locally made products or foreign products, they will have to spend money to pay for such products. Reducing Unemployment It is a standard practice for trade unions and politicians to attack imports and international trade in name of job protection. The argument is based on the assumption that import reduction will create more demand for local products and subsequently create more jobs. Equalizing Cost and Price Some protectionists attempt to justify their actions by invoking economic theory. They argue that foreign goods have lower prices because of lower production costs. Therefore, trade barriers are needed to make prices of imported products less competitive and local items more competitive. Enhancing National Security Protectionists often present themselves as patriots. They usually claim that a nation should be self-sufficient and even willing to pay for inefficiency in order to enhance national security. Opponents of protectionism however dismiss appeals to national security. A nation can never be completely self-sufficient because raw materials are not found in the same proportion in all areas of the world. Protecting infant industry The necessity to protect an infant industry is perhaps the most credible argument for protectionist measures. Some industries need to be protected until they become viable. Here South Korea serves as a good example. It has performed well by selectively protecting infant industries for export purpose. (Source: adopted from Sak Onkvisit, John J.Shaw, International Marketing: Analysis and Strategy) Reasons for protectionism: (source: adopted from econessays.com) 1. Infant industry argument: small firms need to be protected so as to have time to expand and gain economies of scale so as to be able to compete on an international basis later on. However so far this has happened only in big industries such as the steel industry and it gives a motive for firms to remain lazy because they know they dont have to compete on an international level e.g. steel industry in the USA. 2. Dumping to prevent firms from selling goods at a loss to destroy the domestic industry. By allowing free trade there is guarantee for low prices indefinitely because the moment one firm becomes inefficient more efficient ones will enter the market and take it away. 3. Raise revenue for the government through tariffs. 4. Prevent overspecialization and diseconomies of scale in other words over production in a country due to the need to export goods because this will also lead to misallocation of resources which is what we are trying to prevent by free trade. 5. To remove a balance of payments deficit without however tackling the problem at its root this is inefficiency. Non-economic reason for protectionism: 1. Strategic interests: some industries such as the defense industry are better to be kept domestic. For example a country cant depend on others for it weapons industry because in the case of war it would be left unarmed. 2. Political reasons: lack of willingness to trade due to political differences. For example China and Japan dont trade due to political disputes. 3. Prevention of the import of demerit goods such as tobacco and alcohol. 4. Way of life and maintenance of traditional way of living. 5. Protection against low wage economies: some countries gain comparative advantage by offering lower wages. For example people are imposing trade restrictions on China because it underpays its workers and thus no other economy has the ability to compete with her. Alternative for protectionism: 1. Offering subsidies to producers, which is an unpopular alternative because the money will have to be raised through taxes. 2. Free trade area: free trade between member countries; members charge whatever tariffs they wish towards non-member countries. Examples of these are CAFTA, LAFTA, and NAFTA etc. 3. Customs union: free trade between member countries; members must charge a common external tariff against non-member countries. The EU is the only existing such example. Policies of Protectionism A variety of policies have been claimed to achieve protectionist goals. These include: Tariffs: Typically, tariffs (or taxes) are imposed on imported goods. Tariff rates usually vary according to the type of goods imported. Import tariffs will increase the cost to importers, and increase the price of imported goods in the local markets, thus lowering the quantity of goods imported. Tariffs may also be imposed on exports, and in an economy with floating exchange rates, export tariffs have similar effects as import tariffs. However, since export tariffs are often perceived as hurting local industries, while import tariffs are perceived as helping local industries, export tariffs are seldom implemented. Import quotas: To reduce the quantity and therefore increase the market price of imported goods. The economic effects of an import quota are similar to that of a tariff, except that the tax revenue gain from a tariff will instead be distributed to those who receive import licenses. Economists often suggest that import licenses be auctioned to the highest bidder, or that import quotas be replaced by an equivalent tariff. Administrative barriers: Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules (e.g. regarding food safety, environmental standards, electrical safety, etc.) as a way to introduce barriers to imports. Anti-dumping legislation: Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent dumping of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down. However, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters. Direct subsidies: Government subsidies (in the form of lump-sum payments or cheap loans) are sometimes given to local firms that cannot compete well against foreign imports. These subsidies are purported to protect local jobs, and to help local firms adjust to the world markets. Export subsidies: Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports. Export subsidies are the opposite of export tariffs, exporters are paid a percentage of the value of their exports. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have effects similar to import subsidies. Exchange rate manipulation: A government may intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, leading to an improvement in its trade balance. However, such a policy is only effective in the short run, as it will most likely lead to inflation in the country, which will in turn raise the cost of exports, and reduce the relative price of imports. International patent systems: There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Two strands of this argument exist: one when patents held by one country form part of a system of exploitable relative advantage in trade negotiations against another and a second where adhering to a worldwide system of patents confers good citizenship status despite de facto protectionism. (Source: Protectionist Policies, Wikipedia) SOURCE: International marketing strategy: analysis, development and implementationBy Isobel Doole, Robin Lowe Non-tariff barriers to trade  (NTBs) are  trade barriers  that restrict  imports  but are not in the usual form of a  tariff. Some common examples of NTBs are anti-dumping  measures and  countervailing duties, which, although they are called non-tariff barriers, have the effect of tariffs once they are enacted. Their use has risen sharply after the WTO rules led to a very significant reduction in tariff use. Some non-tariff trade barriers are expressly permitted in very limited circumstances, when they are deemed necessary to protect health, safety, or sanitation, or to protect depletable natural resources. In other forms, they are criticized as a means to evade  free trade  rules such as those of the  World Trade Organization(WTO), the  European Union  (EU), or  North American Free Trade Agreement  (NAFTA) that restrict the use of tariffs. Some of non-tariff barriers are not directly related to foreign economic regulations, but nevertheless they have a significant impact on foreign-economic activity and foreign trade between countries. Trade between countries is referred to trade in goods, services and factors of production. Non-tariff barriers to trade include import quotas, special licenses, unreasonable standards for the quality of goods, bureaucratic delays at customs, export restrictions, limiting the activities of state trading, export subsidies,  countervailing duties, technical barriers to trade, sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures, rules of origin, etc.  Sometimes in this list they include macroeconomic measures affecting trade. Six Types of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade Specific Limitations on Trade: Quotas Import  Licensing  requirements Proportion restrictions of foreign to domestic goods (local content requirements) Minimum import price limits Embargoes Customs and Administrative Entry Procedures: Valuation systems Antidumping  practices Tariff classifications Documentation requirements Fees Standards: Standard disparities Intergovernmental acceptances of testing methods and standards Packaging, labeling, and marking Government Participation in Trade: Government procurement policies Export subsidies Countervailing duties Domestic assistance programs Charges on imports: Prior import deposit subsidies Administrative fees Special supplementary duties Import credit discriminations Variable levies Border taxes Others: Voluntary export restraints Orderly marketing agreements Examples of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade Non-tariff barriers to trade can be: Import bans General or product-specific quotas Rules of Origin Quality conditions imposed by the importing country on the exporting countries Sanitary and phyto-sanitary conditions Packaging conditions Labeling conditions Product standards Complex regulatory environment Determination of eligibility of an exporting country by the importing country Determination of eligibility of an exporting establishment(firm, company) by the importing country. Additional trade documents like Certificate of Origin, Certificate of Authenticity Occupational safety and health  regulation Employment law Import licenses State  subsidies, procurement, trading,  state ownership Export subsidies Fixation of a minimum import price Product classification Quota shares Foreign exchange market  controls and multiplicity Inadequate  infrastructure Buy national policy Over-valued currency Intellectual property  laws (patents,  copyrights) Restrictive licenses Seasonal import regimes Corrupt and/or lengthy customs procedures Types of Non-Tariff Barriers There are several different variants of division of non-tariff barriers. Some scholars divide between internal taxes, administrative barriers, health and sanitary regulations and government procurement policies. Others divide non-tariff barriers into more categories such as specific limitations on trade, customs and administrative entry procedures, standards, government participation in trade, charges on import, and other categories. We choose traditional classification of non-tariff barriers, according to which they are divided into 3 principal categories. The first category includes methods to directly import restrictions for protection of certain sectors of national industries: licensing and allocation of import quotas, antidumping and countervailing duties, import deposits, so-called voluntary export restraints, countervailing duties, the system of minimum import prices, etc. Under second category follow methods that are not directly aimed at restricting foreign trade and more related to the administrative bureaucracy, whose actions, however, restrict trade, for example: customs procedures, technical standards and norms, sanitary and veterinary standards, requirements for labeling and packaging, bottling, etc. The third category consists of methods that are not directly aimed at restricting the import or promoting the export, but the effects of which often lead to this result. The non-tariff barriers can include wide variety of restrictions to trade. Here are some example of the popular NTBs. Licenses The most common instruments of direct regulation of imports (and sometimes export) are licenses and quotas. Almost all industrialized countries apply these non-tariff methods. The license system requires that a state (through specially authorized office) issues permits for foreign trade transactions of import and export commodities included in the lists of licensed merchandises. Product licensing can take many forms and procedures. The main types of licenses are general license that permits unrestricted importation or exportation of goods included in the lists for a certain period of time; and one-time license for a certain product importer (exporter) to import (or export). One-time license indicates a quantity of goods, its cost, its country of origin (or destination), and in some cases also customs point through which import (or export) of goods should be carried out. The use of licensing systems as an instrument for foreign trade regulation is based on a number of international le vel standards agreements. In particular, these agreements include some provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures, concluded under the GATT (GATT). Quotas Licensing of foreign trade is closely related to quantitative restrictions quotas on imports and exports of certain goods. A quota is a limitation in value or in physical terms, imposed on import and export of certain goods for a certain period of time. This category includes global quotas in respect to specific countries, seasonal quotas, and so-called voluntary export restraints. Quantitative controls on foreign trade transactions carried out through one-time license. Quantitative restriction on imports and exports is a direct administrative form of government regulation of foreign trade. Licenses and quotas limit the independence of enterprises with a regard to entering foreign markets, narrowing the range of countries, which may be entered into transaction for certain commodities, regulate the number and range of goods permitted for import and export. However, the system of licensing and quota imports and exports, establishing firm control over foreign trade in certain goods, in many cases turns out to be more flexible and effective than economic instruments of foreign trade regulation. This can be explained by the fact, that licensing and quota systems are an important instrument of trade regulation of the vast majority of the world. Agreement on a voluntary export restraint In the past decade, a widespread practice of concluding agreements on the voluntary export restrictions and the establishment of import minimum prices imposed by leading Western nations upon weaker in economical or political sense exporters. The specifics of these types of restrictions is the establishment of unconventional techniques when the trade barriers of importing country, are introduced at the border of the exporting and not importing country. Thus, the agreement on voluntary export restraints is imposed on the exporter under the threat of sanctions to limit the export of certain goods in the importing country. Similarly, the establishment of minimum import prices should be strictly observed by the exporting firms in contracts with the importers of the country that has set such prices. In the case of reduction of export prices below the minimum level, the importing country imposes anti-dumping duty which could lead to withdrawal from the market. Voluntary export agreements af fect trade in textiles, footwear, dairy products, consumer electronics, cars, machine tools, etc. Problems arise when the quotas are distributed between countries, because it is necessary to ensure that products from one country are not diverted in violation of quotas set out in second country. Import quotas are not necessarily designed to protect domestic producers. For example, Japan, maintains quotas on many agricultural products it does not produce. Quotas on imports is a leverage when negotiating the sales of Japanese exports, as well as avoiding excessive dependence on any other country in respect of necessary food, supplies of which may decrease in case of bad weather or political conditions. Export quotas can be set in order to provide domestic consumers with sufficient stocks of goods at low prices, to prevent the depletion of natural resources, as well as to increase export prices by restricting supply to foreign markets. Such restrictions (through agreements on various types of goods) allow producing countries to use quotas for such commodities as coffee and oil; as the result, prices for these products increased in importing countries. Embargo Embargo is a specific type of quotas prohibiting the trade. As well as quotas, embargoes may be imposed on imports or exports of particular goods, regardless of destination, in respect of certain goods supplied to specific countries, or in respect of all goods shipped to certain countries. Although the embargo is usually introduced for political purposes, the consequences, in essence, could be economic. Standards Standards take a special place among non-tariff barriers. Countries usually impose standards on classification, labeling and testing of products in order to be able to sell domestic products, but also to block sales of products of foreign manufacture. These standards are sometimes entered under the pretext of protecting the safety and health of local populations. Administrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance Among the methods of non-tariff regulation should be mentioned administrative and bureaucratic delays at the entrance which increase uncertainty and the cost of maintaining inventory. Import deposits Another example of foreign trade regulations is import deposits. Import deposits is a form of deposit, which the importer must pay the bank for a definite period of time (non-interest bearing deposit) in an amount equal to all or part of the cost of imported goods. At the national level, administrative regulation of capital movements is carried out mainly within a framework of bilateral agreements, which include a clear definition of the legal regime, the procedure for the admission of investments and investors. It is determined by mode (fair and equitable, national, most-favored-nation), order of nationalization and compensation, transfer profits and capital repatriation and dispute resolution. Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign  exchange controls Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls occupy a special place among the non-tariff regulatory instruments of foreign economic activity. Foreign exchange restrictions constitute the regulation of transactions of residents and nonresidents with currency and other currency values. Also an important part of the mechanism of control of foreign economic activity is the establishment of the national currency against foreign currencies. The transition from tariffs to non-tariff barriers One of the reasons why industrialized countries have moved from tariffs to NTBs is the fact that developed countries have sources of income other than tariffs. Historically, in the formation of nation-states, governments had to get funding. They received it through the introduction of tariffs. This explains the fact that most developing countries still rely on tariffs as a way to finance their spending. Developed countries can afford not to depend on tariffs, at the same time developing NTBs as a possible way of international trade regulation. The second reason for the transition to NTBs is that these tariffs can be used to support weak industries or compensation of industries, which have been affected negatively by the reduction of tariffs. The third reason for the popularity of NTBs is the ability of interest groups to influence the process in the absence of opportunities to obtain government support for the tariffs. Non-tariff barriers today With the exception of export subsidies and quotas, NTBs are most similar to the tariffs. Tariffs for goods production were reduced during the eight rounds of negotiations in the WTO and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). After lowering of tariffs, the principle of protectionism demanded the introduction of new NTBs such as technical barriers to trade (TBT). According to statements made at United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD, 2005), the use of NTBs, based on the amount and control of price levels has decreased significantly from 45% in 1994 to 15% in 2004, while use of other NTBs increased from 55% in 1994 to 85% in 2004. Increasing consumer demand for safe and environment friendly products also have had their impact on increasing popularity of TBT. Many NTBs are governed by WTO agreements, which originated in the Uruguay Round (the TBT Agreement, SPS Measures Agreement, the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing), as well as GATT articles. NTBs in the field of services have become as important as in the field of usual trade. Most of the NTB can be defined as protectionist measures, unless they are related to difficulties in the market, such as externalities and information asymmetries information asymmetries between consumers and producers of goods. An example of this is safety standards and labeling requirements. The need to protect sensitive to import industries, as well as a wide range of trade restrictions, available to the governments of industrialized countries, forcing them to resort to use the NTB, and putting serious obstacles to international trade and world economic growth. Thus, NTBs can be referred as a new of protection which has replaced tariffs as an old form of protection. CASE 1: A case for good protectionism Bharat Jhunjhunwala (source: The Hindu Business Line) THE defeat of the NDA Government and the victory of the Congress (I) supported by the Left is one more symptom of the growing worldwide backlash against globalization. White- collar workers in industrial countries are losing their jobs to the cheap labor of India and China. Services, such as research, are now being outsourced because scientists in the developing countries are cheaper. On the other hand, workers in the developing countries are finding that their wages are stagnant while inequality is rising. The belief was that free trade leads to efficient production and also forces domestic government to reduce corruption. This provides relief to the people. Else businessmen would have to pay money to local thugs and politicians to avoid trouble. Government officers would have to be bribed to run normal business. For instance, a boiler inspector can shut down a plant for 15 days on frivolous grounds. The money paid to politicians and officers by the businessman adds to the cost of production and raises the cost of his produce say, cloth to Rs 25 a metre instead of Rs 20. The cost of production of similar cloth in other countries having good governance, however, remains low because they do not have to bribe politicians and officers. The cost of other inputs, such as cotton, machines and chemicals, remains the same in all countries because of free trade. Cloth produced in another country can conquer Indian markets if the cost of production in that clean country is Rs 20 and is Rs 25 in corrupt India. Textile mills in India will have to down shutters. Ultimately, politicians will have to reduce the money they extract from the businessmen failing which they will be killing the goose that lays golden eggs. The same applies to inefficient businessmen. Globalization will force the Indian businessman to install latest looms in order to survive. This will provide good and cheap cloth to the Indian people. Globalization, indeed, begets clean governance and efficient production. The difficulty, however, is that free trade also works in the Labor market. Say, India and another country both have clean governments and the cost of production of cloth in both countries is Rs 20 a metre. The wage rate in the other country is Rs 80 per day. The Indian businessman will not be able to pay more than this rate to his workers as otherwise his cost of production will increase and he will be priced out of the market. The country paying lowest wages wins in free trade. Free trade leads to equalization of wages rates to their global lowest levels. This decline in wages nullifies the benefits from good governance and efficient production. No wonder workers in the industrial countries are opposing free trade and outsourcing. Software programmers are finding their wage rate declining as technology makes it possible to transfer huge amounts of data at the click of the mouse. The wage rates in most developing countries are also stagnant. Workers in East Asian countries are seeing their wage rates decline due to competition from the less paid Chinese workers. Free trade works as a two-edged sword. On the one hand, it leads to clean governance and efficient production but on the other it leads to lowering of wage rates to their global minimum. What is the solution to this problem? How can the benefits of free trade be secured while creating higher wages for the workers? Protectionism enables domestic prices to remain higher than the global prices. Such higher prices can be used to support corruption, inefficient production or higher wages. The solution comes from using protection not for corruption or inefficient production but for higher wages. Suppose India were to impose an additional tax of Rs 5 per metre on cloth imports. The price of cloth in the Indian market would become Rs 25 instead of Rs 20 earlier. This margin can be taken away by corrupt politicians and officers, or used to maintain inefficient production in obsolete mills, or to raise wages of the workers. The ability lies in avoiding the first two uses and promoting the third. If the government establishes, say, a system to trap corrupt politicians and officers, promotes domestic competition to avoid inefficient production, and implements policies that lead to higher wages, then this protectionism becomes pro-people. Free trade is necessarily anti-people because it leads to low wages even if it provides good governance and efficient production. Protectionism can possibly be pro-people if applied correctly. What about exports, though? It is possible to prevent cheap imports by imposing tariffs. But how will exports be made if the domestic wage rates are high? The solution is to use the receipts from import taxes to provide export subsidies to Labor-intensive products. The higher cost due to high wages can be neutralised by the subsidies. It is clear that free trade will not lead to the welfare of the people anywhere in the world. Protectionism makes it possible to secure peoples welfare but only if applied correctly. But bad protectionism that supports corruption is worse than free trade. The challenge is to embrace good protectionism. CASE 2 FREE TRADE OR PROTECTIONISM? The Case Against Trade Restrictions by Vincent H. Miller James R. Elwood (source: isil.org) The Lure of Protectionism   The argument for so-called protectionism (called fair trade by some) may at first sound appealing. Supporters of protectionist laws claim that keeping out foreign goods will save jobs, giving ailing domestic industries a chance to recover and prosper, and reduce the trade deficits. Are these claims valid? Protectionism: What It Costs   Classical Liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill astutely observed in the last century that Trade barriers are chiefly injurious to the countries imposing them. It is true today as it was then, for the following reasons: LOST JOBS: Protectionist laws raise taxes (tariffs) on imported goods and/or impose limits (quotas) on the amount of goods governments permit to enter into a country. They are laws that not only restrict the choice of consumer goods, but also contribute greatly both to the cost of goods and to the cost of doing business. So under protectionism you end up poorer, with less money for buying other things you want

Monarchy/Episcopalianism Government

The advantages of a Monarchy government are it only has one ruler. The government and the state are in high power and in a single person’s hands. These states are called a kingdom or empire. Another advantage is the power of the king or supreme magistrate has limitations by the constitution. It also gives less control to the ruler then despotism but also makes the population happier and more productive. The advantage of an Episcopalianism government is unity of structure, style and doctrine within church government. The disadvantage of a Monarchy is that you have more control over the people in your empire.Therefore, the production capabilities within the cities will be very limited. The disadvantage of Episcopalianism government is authority is given to an office not a person. (Acts 6:36), (Acts 14:23). Republicanism/ Presbyterianism Government The advantages of a Republicanism government are citizens can participate in government and give there opinions. There is no dictator ship; citizens can elect representatives to office. The advantages of a Presbyterianism government it is an ideal system for the maintaining of proper church discipline.It is also based on scripture principles; it is the nearest teachings of the Holy Scriptures on church government. â€Å"Christ is the great head of the church universal. † â€Å"All church government must be subject to him alone† (Ephesians 5:23; Colossians 1:18) â€Å"The people have a right to substantive of government of the church†. â€Å"But all things must be done decently and in order†. (1 Corinthians 14:40; Acts 14:23) (Romans 3:1; 1 Timothy 6:3-5) (Galatians 4:21) The disadvantages of a Republicanism government are you cannot maintain martial law in a city under this government.The bad thing about trading is you cannot have prosperity in your empire because the senate approves everything you do. The disadvantage of a Presbyterianism government is it has not totally removed all of the abuse and errors in the churches that have adopted it. It greatly reduces much time and effort in the decision-making, politics, and parties’ attitude. Has little or no accountability to the larger community of believers. Democracy/Congregationalism Government The advantages of a Democracy government are everyone has a voice in the decision-making. Citizens have the same rights and freedoms and all citizens are equal before the law.They also have equal power; it also safeguards the interest of the people. It is known for stability, firmness and efficiency. The advantages of a Congregationalism government are the church appears to be independent in the New Testament, it also recognizes the importance of individual believers. It also accepts the bible as a sufficient rule in matters of faith and practice. The disadvantages of Democracy is it citizens because it does not establish dictatorship of majority. It ignores the minority and the minorities are oppressed if no party gets absolute majority coalition governments are formed.  (Romans 13:1) (Peter 2:13-14)The disadvantages of a congregationalism government are there are too many people foster independent spirits and opinions. It forms easy church splits and can lead to lack of history or past. There is too much authority given to an office competitiveness and lack of unity. (Matthew 18:18-20) In conclusion, I believe all of the forms of government can be of good nature where the government is concerned. It is also elements of all three forms of church governments in the New Testament. They all intertwine as co-existing in the government in many forms and fashions and bring a balance to our government as a whole.

Pornography and the Sexualization of Society

Pornography and the Sexualization of Society SOC101 11/27/12 The topic I chose is â€Å"Pornography and the Sexualization of Society†. I chose this article because I’ve noticed a drastic changes in the media, in advertising, and marketing that influences society in desensitizing us and our beliefs on what is normal and morally acceptable in terms of exposure to sexual content as well as the mass marketing of items that were once rarely seen in your corner drugstore or advertised in major publications.I can recall growing up as a teenager in the 1990’s and how big of a deal it was when a prime time television show featured it’s main characters having sex for the first time, or even making reference to explicit sexual acts. In contrast, in the last 20 years, it’s common place for teens or very young adults on television and in movies to have sex lives dramatized for entertainment. Additionally, television and print advertisements not only use explicit innuendo for contraception like condoms for example, but they also feature specialty enhancements for these products to make sex â€Å"better† for both partners.A visit to a local drugstore and there are sex toys advertised as â€Å"personal massagers† , lubricants for â€Å"his and her† pleasure and other items that would once have only been found in an adult bookstore. Pornography, not only in print and privately packaged covers can be found at most book stores as well as online websites with almost no age restriction. Soft porn is also readily available on cable television, and not just on premium channels designated adults only.HBO, Cinemax and Starz all have late night content that I would not want my teenage relatives to watch. Movies in theaters do have mandated content warnings, but it seems that even non â€Å"R† rated movies show a lot more today than they did 20 years ago. This contributes to what I would consider the Sexualization of our curr ent Society. The question for me is whether or not added exposure to sex, especially to teens and young adults contributes to deviant behavior.When applying Functionalist Theory, and the idea that society relies upon its members to have order, stability and an agreement on what values are and how they should be achieved, I can’t help but wonder to what extent does the overt sexualization of our culture have an impact on that stability. While our text does not indicate an increase in sex amongst youth in recent years, there is still a notable difference generationally speaking.This difference isn’t necessarily in the act of sex itself, but it our pop culture, in our mass communication online, in text messages and face to face conversations. If our society is to continue with overt sexualization as it has been†¦what will be the outcome? Will more teens have sex, will deviant sexual behavior become more and more prevalent? What mechanism should be employed to prevent the latter from happening? (Anderson/ Taylor 2011). References: Andersen, M. L. , and H. F. Taylor. Sociology, the Essentials. 6. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co, 2010. Print

The Rise Of The Middle Ages Essay - 1259 Words

One of the biggest questions that ponders many medieval historians is when did the actual ‘middle ages’ begin? Depending on who you talk to, you may receive many different answers varying from the deposition of Romulus Augustulus all the way to the rise of the Carolingian empire. I would argue the characteristics of the middle ages include a real shift in culture and religion, while seeing the dominant influence that Christianity had on culture. Personally, I think that the reign of the emperor Constantine is what really began the shift into the middle ages. Under Constantine, we see a transformation of religion, culture and politics. In the centuries leading up to Constantine, the Roman Empire was having many ups and downs. The first and second centuries were labeled â€Å"the Golden Age† in the Roman Empire due to the miraculous and impressive achievements. Although impressive, Peter Brown, author of The Rise of Western Christendom, calls these achievements â₠¬Å"fair weather achievements.† So basically, due to the prolonged times of peace and massive military dominance, it was fairly easy for the Romans to complete all of these accomplishments. However, in terms of government during this time, the Roman Empire was rather undergoverned. But again, due to the lack of military threat, it never really was exposed. It wasn’t until the Sasanian empire in the middle east that the inadequacies of the Roman Empire were revealed. Even though one could argue that this powerful empire wasShow MoreRelatedThe Rise Of The Middle Ages904 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the High Middle Ages, there was no strong, central government that was politically organized enough to meet common needs of the people in Europe. After the fall of Charlemagne’s empire, invasions and anarchy became the societal norm. If they wanted to survive, they had to meet particular needs. 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Life Requires Imagination Essay - 1289 Words

Life Requires Imagination Not very many people have looked death in the eye. But, when a person does it is something can have a drastic effect on them. Some people are able to survive their deaths, however some end up passing on and are not able to turn their lives around. However, in the short story To Build a Fire by Jack London the man in the story does not survive his dance with death. In the story, the man, whom never gets a name, embarks on a very cold, very long journey to a mining camp. On his journey, he has to stop several times and build a fire in order to keep himself warm and keep himself going throughout his journey to the camp. He has a dog lead him, and then he must save the dog as it fell through the ice. Soon after, he†¦show more content†¦But, rather than waiting and keeping warm, the man simply keeps on moving when his body does need the rest. Also, he not only needs to keep warm, he separates himself from the boys. London states the other boys â€Å"had come over across the divide from the Indian creek country, while [the man] had come the round-about way to take a look at the possibilities of getting out logs in the spring from the islands in the Yukon† (4). This basically shows how confident he was about going about this trip alone and how he needed no one by his side in order to have a successful journey. This man wants to be just that, a man. And if he slows himself down, he does not consider himself a man any longer. The man tries to do everything in his power to make his trip to the mining camp successful, little does he know, he made his mistakes before the trip even began. He did not want to listen to the advice of an old man from Sulphur Creek. The man told him to never travel alone in that cold of whether, but instead of listening, he only continues with his travels, only because he wants to protect his own pride, and to be a man. London shows how foolish the man thinks the old man is when he states â€Å"Those ol d-timers were rather womanish, some of them, he thought. All a man had to do was keep his head, and he was all right. Any man who was a man could travel alone† (21). This clearly shows the manShow MoreRelatedChildren Of The Holocaust Survivor Essay1384 Words   |  6 Pagescoping mechanism to deal with his pain of remembering and to provide him with a moral compass from using his imagination to remember his past. Repression of Memories To try to deal with his memory of his parents and sister Bella, Jacob develops ways to repress his memories of losing his family during the Holocaust. His painful memories of losing his parents haunt him throughout his life. Memories that are so vivid, he has a difficult time letting go of his past most importantly his sister BellaRead MoreKnowledge Vs. 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Causing Harm With Trade Embargos And Sanctions - 1678 Words

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Stroop Effect free essay sample

CogLab Report Stroop Effect CogLab Report The Stroop effect is a test that demonstrates a decrease in reaction time that occurs when the brain receives conflicting information. When sensory information conflicts, a processing delay occurs in the brain; this is interference. If a specific color is paired with its corresponding word then those two pieces of information are compatible. If the information conflicts then the individual is forced to make a decision. It is hypothesized that reaction times will be lower when the word and font color are the same and reaction times will increase when the word and font color are different. Method Participants A total of 20 undergraduate students participated in this experiment; 18 were women and 2 were men. Materials Students used CogLab, an online laboratory used as part of a cognitive psychology class, to complete the Stroop Effect task. Procedure Participants were asked to identify the color of each word as quickly as possible. Stroop effect and reading process Stroop effect is one of the most used indicator tests in investigating the efficiency of mental processes that confine action, emotion or thought (Bioulac et al. , 2005). Stroop effect is described as a test to further understand human perception which involves the automatic and the controlled mental processes (Shabazz, 2010). Stroop task is usually directed with two different conditions, the first one (congruent) is where participants are presented with a list of color names printed in ink color that it corresponds, and the second condition (incongruent) which incorporates a list of color names that does not agree with its ink color. In both condition, participants are ask to report the ink color used to print the color names (Bioulac et al. , 2005). Interference is found in both condition but with a greater magnitude in the condition where words or color names do not agree with the ink color (Bioulac et al. , 2005). Related to this is the reversed Stroop effect that requires participants to report the printed word rather than the ink color that produces which also produced interference but wilt a lower level than the classical Stroop effect (Au, E. Chen, R. Chen, Wong, 2000). Many researches pointed out automatic processes as the primary cause of Stroop effect (Aisenberg, Goldfarb, Henik, 2011; Bioulac et al. , 2005; Juvina Taatgen, 2009; Shabazz, 2010). Automatic processes is described as the thinking which is unintended, indirect or unaware that suggests unconsciously performing task beyond what is required to do, which supports the cause of automatic reading of words in a color-naming task (Aisenberg, Goldfarb, Henik, 2011; Shabazz, 2010). Cattell (1886) and Fraisse (1969) further proposed that it is more automatic to read words than to name certain color (as cited in Juvina Taatgen, 2009). A research by Shabazz (2010) also supports the conclusion that individuals are faster in recognizing the color and reading the color names than reporting the color of the ink used. Researches regarding stroop effect is essential for further and more in-depth understanding of human perception and also seeking to provide more information to further investigate and contributes to existing knowledge regarding Stroop effect and its future applications for human development. Many researches already used Stroop task to investigate different ideas such as the study about cognitive control that is said to be fundamental to interference resolution (Juvina Taatgen, 2009). Stroop task also became applicable in investigating attention bias of individuals to their own interest (Franken, Sayette, Schwartz, Waters, 2004). The present study is a replication of the research by Stroop (1935). In which the researchers faced with an inquiry of how the word stimuli (color name) interfere with the identification of the ink color of the word, and also how the ink color of the word affects the reading of the color name. The researchers hypothesized that individuals can name ink color faster if it corresponds to the same name color that when it is not. The response time between two conditions – congruent and incongruent – are measured to test whether congruency between color name and ink color results to a faster naming of color. Method Participants The participants of the study were two senior BASS Psychology students and 28 B. A Psychology sophomore students of University of the Philippines in the Visayas Tacloban College with ages ranging from 17-21 years old, 4 of which were male and 26 were female. Materials Materials used in the experiment were experimental instructions, congruent list (annex A), incongruent list (annex A) and data sheet. Procedure The experiment was divided into two sets. The first set was a condition wherein congruent color names and ink color were presented first before the incongruent set of words. In the second set, the first set of words presented was incongruent, followed by the congruent list of words. The experiment was conducted inside the Psych laboratory of the University of the Philippines Eastern Visayas Tacloban College. Assignment of which among the participants would be on the first set or second set was decided through count off. After the count off, all the participants inside the psych laboratory were told to stay at the DMX and wait for their names to be called by one of the experimenters. Two participants were called in every now and then. One of which was someone who was assigned to the first condition or first set, while the other participant was from the second set. There were three experimenters, two of which were the ones who conducted the exam and the third one was the person responsible for calling in the next participants of the experiment. Between the two examiners, each of them was assigned in conducting either of the two conditions and each of the experimenter has their own copy of the congruent and incongruent lists and manuscript of the procedure. The instructions that they gave to the participants were also from the same manuscript and were read at the same time. After the experimenter was assured that their participant has understood the instruction given and both him/her and the participants were ready to begin, they then commenced the test. Each participant has to read the set of words listed in the congruent or incongruent list given to them. In the congruent list of words, the participant was told to read the color names. On the other hand, in the incongruent list, the participant was told to name the ink color of the words. The length of time that the participant spent in reading was recorded by the experimenter. The experimenter spoke out the word â€Å"Go! † as a mark that the participant was already allowed to begin reading the words, while participants had to say â€Å"done! † right after they had finished reading the list to notify the experimenter that he/she has ended the first test. The experimenter then recorded the time duration right away on the line at the bottom of the data sheet. The same procedure was followed for the second test. Various measures were carried out by the experimenter to maintain control in the experiment and to ensure that only the IV would affect the DV of the experiment. The purpose of saying the words â€Å"Go† and â€Å"Done† were for helping the experimenter to correctly jot down the correct length of time the reading process of the participant has taken in each set of words, be it in Incongruent list or Congruent list. Reading of the same instruction to each participant was also to make sure that there would be no other factors that would intervene in the performance of the participant or having unnecessary disturbances in the flow of the experiment, which could influence the reliability of the result or data gathered. Research Design The research design used is Within-subjects design. Variables The independent variable of the experiment was congruence of color names and ink colors. Levels of IV were congruent color names and ink color and incongruent color names and ink color. The Dependent variable was reading speed which was measured in seconds using stopwatch. Extraneous variables controls were random assignment of participants, the distance between the locations of the two experimenters to avoid disturbance during the experiment, synchronized reading of the instructions and the use of counterbalancing. Data Analysis